文书写作教程第三课：文章结构

 

一、规范结构法规范结构是最常用的也是几乎任何情况下都建议使用的结构。规范结构一般用于介绍主题和引言段的要点，在正文的每一段提供一个支持要点，在最后一段再重申文章的大意或得出结论。下面是申请者（例1）写她作为一个政治上积极分子的经历所使用的一个规范结构的例子。

 

第一段（引言）起始句："I am an activist with a commitment to fighting for progressivecauses through legislation, policy, and grassroots organizing."引进主题：虽然她积极参与了许多政治性活动，但她的主要兴趣是主张性教育和保健。说明意图："In this statement I will explain how I gained expertise inthis field through both academic and professional work from 1988 to thepresent."

 

第二段转折/主题句："At [Ivy League University] I began my commitment toreproductive health." 论点和证据：在学术上她专注于生殖问题的研究，这可从她的工作得到证实：她专攻妇女研究和法律问题，她研究了堕胎法案对国民保健制度的冲击，她写了关于从法律上处理滥用怀孕药物的论文，等等。

 

第三段 转折/主题句："While I was a student, I gained professional experience asa birth control counselor at the University health clinic." 论点和证据：她在课外活动中还作为顾问和计划生育教育工作者积极参与生殖健康问题的研究。

 

第四段 转折/主题句："When I moved to a small desert town in the Western UnitedStates, I volunteered for a democratic congressional campaign, where Ibriefed the candidate on abortion rights and sexuality issues in healthcare reform." 论点和证据：她的第一个工作经验是作为计划生育处公共事务主任参与了保健行动。

 

第五段 转折/主题句："I quickly learned that this small town was far moreconservative than my university's eastern college community." 论点和证据：她根据自己对当地右翼活动分子的研究发表了文章和专栏评论，对反对她的做法的观点进行反击。

 

第六段 转折/主题句："When my State Senator asked me to manage his reelectioncampaign, I eagerly accepted since I knew he had worked hard in support ofhealth care and civil rights." 论点和证据：她从创作有效的政治宣传文件，管理志愿者等工作得到宝贵的教训。

 

第七段 转折/主题句："I had hoped to work in the state capitol after thecampaign, and I am now working for a state level health care advocacyorganization which employs a lobbyist and coordinates grassroots strategy." 论点和证据：她通过研究法律法规、协助负责人等工作，在自己目前的职位上，继续专注于保健和政治。

 

第八段（结论） 转折/主题句："While I believe that I have developed both academic andprofessional expertise in reproductive health policy, health care reform,and political organizing, I would like to acquire the skills and power tomake a bigger difference." 结束语：作者重申文章要点，并且和上法学院的动机以及毕业后的目标紧紧联系起来。

 

例1：Activist

 

注意：为了教学目的，该文发表时未加修改。I am an activist with a commitment to fighting for progressive causesthrough legislation, policy, and grassroots organizing. While I haveparticipated in many varied projects from editing a sexuality educationcurriculum to campaigning for gay rights as a local boardmember of [thestatewide gay rights organization], I am most concerned with reproductivehealth issues. In this statement I will explain how I gained expertise inthis field through both academic and professional work from 1988 to thepresent. Through this work I have acquired the intellectual foundation andthe concrete experience to be an effective advocate for citizens' right tosexuality education and health care.At [school] I began my commitment to reproductive health. I earned theright to design my own major in women's studies and legal issues, for whichI took courses in feminism and wrote on the developing legal precedentrecognizing fetal rights. During my year at [school] I studied the impactthe abortion pill RU 486 might have on the National Health Service,researched the evolving debate about the drug in the European press, andpresented my findings at a Women's Studies Department seminar upon myreturn to the U.S. In my senior thesis on the legal treatment of pregnantsubstance abusers, I addressed the difficulties associated with prosecutingthese women and proposed alternative approaches. While I was a student, I gained professional experience as a birth controlcounselor at the University health clinic. I also worked as a PlannedParenthood educator, for which I edited a sexuality education curriculumand designed and taught community programs on contraception, AIDS, puberty,and sexual abuse prevention. When I moved to a small desert town in the Western United States, Ivolunteered for a democratic congressional campaign, where I briefed thecandidate on abortion rights and sexuality issues in health care reform. Imet the executive director of the regional Planned Parenthood, andconvinced her to hire me as the agency's first Director of Public Affairs.I coordinated grassroots lobbying efforts on pending legislation includingthe state's health care reform bill, clinic access bill, and anti-gayrights legislation. I quickly learned that this small town was far more conservative than myuniversity's eastern college community. Many of Planned Parenthood'sefforts to promote sexuality education were thwarted. I decided to discoverwho opposed the agency and what their tactics were. My research uncovered anetwork of local activists, some of whom had connections to state andnation-wide Conservative organizations. I attended many meetings andfollowed public right-wing activity such as the campaign to teachcreationism in our local schools. I published my findings in an op-ed piecefor our local paper, and as a front page article for a west-coast humanrights newsletter. I have enclosed copies of these publications for you. When my State Senator asked me to manage his reelection campaign, I eagerlyaccepted since I knew he had worked hard in support of health care andcivil rights. The position also offered me greater professionalresponsibility. Even though we lost the election, the campaign was aninvaluable lesson in creating an effective political message, managinghundreds of volunteers, working in coalition with other campaigns,designing advertising, and fundraising. I had hoped to work in the state capitol after the campaign, and I am nowworking for a state level health care advocacy organization which employs alobbyist and coordinates grassroots strategy. In my new position I amresearching legislation, helping the director design lobbying strategies,and keeping affiliated organizations throughout the state informed aboutevolving policy and bills. While I believe that I have developed both academic and professionalexpertise in reproductive health policy, health care reform, and politicalorganizing, I would like to acquire the skills and power to make a biggerdifference. Law school would provide me with the technical skills andprofessional influence to be more effective in confronting right-winglitigation and initiatives and in designing and advocating for progressivesocial policy. After law school, I envision working for a non-profitorganization such as the ACLU Reproductive Freedom Project, or working ingovernment drafting and analyzing reproductive health policy andlegislation. 二、问题分析法

 

在写个人声明的文章时并不是人人都选择传统的规范结构。有些作者愿意把文章的重点放在对某一个问题或论点的分析上，就象例2作者那样。她写了关于拉丁美洲的发展的影响，更具体地说，是对工厂女工的影响。注意她的结构是如何突出她必须做到的几个最关键的方面：1）她把问题个性化；2）她明确地提出论点并用具体的实证支持其论点；3）她讨论了问题的两面；4）她说明自己如何在现实生活中积极地促进该问题的解决；5）（最重要的一点）她把对问题的分析和自己上法学院的动机联系起来。

 

第一段（引言） 起始句："After college I served for two and a half years in Honduraswith the U.S. Peace Corps." 引进主题：她先介绍拉丁美洲的发展这个主题，进而联系自己在洪都拉斯的经历使主题个性化。 说明重点："I found potential for changing some of the larger problems ofdevelopment in a surprising arena, maquilardoras, or textile factories."

 

第二段 转折/主题句："While in Honduras I talked to many women who worked inmaquilardoras." 论点和证据：她提出自己的观点，即工厂并不象学校教学中所描绘的那样消极。她以自己在洪都拉斯所得到的第一手经验为证据说明这个观点。

 

第三段 转折/主题句：”The factory jobs had other positive side effects.” 论点和证据: 她引证工人工资的提高和教育的改善为自己的论点提供更有力的证据。

 

第四段 转折/主题句：”How to balance these positive factors with the oftenexploitative and abusivemethods of the factory managers, or how to control theproblems of rural-urban migration are questions I am still investigating.” 论点和证据: 她又从论点的其它方面进行检验，但最后又重申自己的立场。

 

第五段 转折/主题句：”With the new U.S. policy focus on trade with Latin Americaand with moreand more busiensses using labor abroad, labor conditions inmaquiladoras will be a growing human rights issue.” 论点和证据: 她阐述了问题与未来的关系，提供了证据，说明自己已经采取了行动，要让全国了解该问题并推动全国性的讨论。

 

第六段（结论） 转折/主题句：”A law degree would give me a tool to continue to workeffectively andrealistically on this and other issues that contribute tothe well-being of peopleaffected by U.S. policies and investments in LatinAmerica.” 要点：她把自己参与该问题的研究和讨论与上法学院的动机联系起来。

 

例2： Activist

 

注意：为了教学目的，该文发表时未加修改。After college I served for two and a half years in Honduras with the U.S.Peace Corps. During my time there I worked on several development projects.My experiences left me with mixed feelings about development and what isrealistically achievable. Projects often proved only thin band-aids againstlarger endemic problems. I found potential for changing some of the largerproblems of development in a surprising arena, maquiladoras, or textilefactories. While in Honduras, I talked to many women who worked in maquiladoras.Unlike what I had read in classes, these women were happy to have theirjobs and suffered no health problems or abuse. They earned more moneyworking in the factories in the cities than picking coffee in themountains. Women could leave their homes and find work without having todepend on husbands or families to survive.The factory jobs had other positive side effects. I saw wealthy familiesdriving to the countryside to find maids because all the city maids quit towork in the factories where they earned more. Wages for domestic workershad already risen and these families were trying to avoid paying an evenhigher salary. Also, factories required a sixth grade degree. This, ifnothing else, could motivate an illiterate farmer to keep his daughters inschool. How to balance these positive factors with the often exploitative andabusive methods of the factory managers, or how to control the problems ofrural-urban migration are questions I am still investigating. However,economic opportunities outside of the home, such as those in maquiladoras,could play a key role in changing traditional attitudes that prevent womenfrom developing and using their full potential. With the new U.S. policy focus on trade with Latin America and with moreand more businesses using labor abroad, labor conditions in maquiladoraswill be a growing human rights issue. At the Washington Office on LatinAmerica (WOLA), I have been able to write letters to the USTR pushing forthe continued review of the Generalized System of Preferences in Guatemala,to the President of El Salvador to encourage the enforcement of their laborcodes, and lobbied for a labor petitioning amendment to the Caribbean BasinTrade Security Act. A law degree would give me a tool to continue to work effectively andrealistically on this and other issues that contribute to the well-being ofpeople affected by U.S. policies and investments in Latin America.

 

三、比较与对比法

 

与利用直接经验相反，有些申请者把他们自己的经验和对研究生所要求的技能进行比较。在这种情况下，他们可以选择“比较与对比”结构。例3这位 申请人用了这一结构，他集中论述一本书对他的学习方法的影响。这一结构还可通过变化之前的你与现在的你的对比来说明你生活中的一个变化。

 

例3： Influence of Book

 

注意：为了教学目的，该文发表时未加修改。"How many a man has dated a new era in his life from the reading of abook." (Thoreau) One evening, during Christmas vacation of my freshman year in college, whena formidable storm outside called for an evening of hot tea and heavyreading, I picked up a book that had been sitting on my desk for severalweeks. On the cover, it read "Selections of the Essays: Montaigne." On theinside, only a few circled page numbers evidenced that the book had everbeen used. I was supposed to have read Montaigne that past quarter for HonorsHumanities Core, but had, instead, done no more than to skim key pageshighlighted in lecture-enough to earn myself a decent grade in the course.That was how I approached school then-with the goal of getting the highestpossible grade with the least possible effort. Grades have always been,after all, very important to me. Having been unsure as to what I wanted todo in life, I figured that getting good grades would insure that once Idecided on what I wanted, that that opportunity would still lie open forme. Such, then, was how I justified my attitude towards studying; it servedthe very practical goal of rendering myself "marketable."

 

This approach to academics is not original. My parents taught me that theonly way I would get anywhere in life (in the States) was througheducation. United States immigrants, arriving in 1975 as refugees fromVietnam, our family was forced to leave all our belongings behind. We hadto make a fresh start in a foreign country. My father's only asset was hismind-he had a college education. The first five years we were here, heworked at a sewage plant while studying on his own for the country'sengineering exam. After passing the exam, he got a job as a civil engineerat the City of Anaheim. Six years later, he was promoted to a positionabove that of his own boss, then,-that of Water Engineering Manager. Allalong, what he taught my four siblings and I was that the best thing wecould do for ourselves was to study hard. Education (along with hard work),he always said, serve as the key to succeeding and to earning people'srespect in this country (which he did). I still believe him, but I havesince learned that such practical ends are not the sole purpose ofeducation. I opened the book that evening, curious as to what I might have missed inmy efforts to minimize the quarter's workload, and found more. I foundmyself in the middle of Montaigne's essay "On the Education of Children."Emerson once wrote that "within books, the good reader finds confidences,or asides, hidden from all else and unmistakably meant for his ear. Theprofoundest thought or passion sleeps as if in a mind until it isdiscovered by an equal mind and heart." Such was my encounter withphilosophy that evening. Montaigne's words did not claim some vacant chairinside my mind, as if at an auction, hoping to win its bid for myattention. They pounced on me, rather, drilled deep into my core, anddragged out gems I had long buried. "The first lessons in which we shouldsteep [a student's] mind," I read, "must be those that regulate hisbehavior and his sense, that will teach him to know himself and to die welland to live well." Montaigne's words did not so much teach me anything new,as they reminded me of beliefs I had once held, of ideas I had previouslyknown, but forgotten or discarded as childish and impractical.

 

That book, read numerous times since, served as a catalyst for both mypersonal and academic growth. Montaigne inspired me to stress theattainment of wisdom over the acquisition of knowledge. I used to studyenough to gather the "facts" of a theory, my essays having been not muchmore than reports on those facts, perhaps, frosted over with a bit ofcommentary. I tasted ideas, chewed on them for as long as it took to takemy tests, and then spit them out. They did not change me but for a briefgrin at a pleasant idea or a wrinkling of the nose at a bitter one. I toldmyself that it would be a waste of time to try and fully absorb any of thematerial I was studying, much less form an opinion on it. I made a mistake,then, that I had promised myself years before never to make. I became soworried about preparing a living, that I forgot to make a life for myself.For while my grades were thriving, my mind was stagnating. I did not grow;I did not change. I changed my major, then, from Social Science to Philosophy, so that Imight "study myself more than any other subject," to make, as Montaignesaid, "that. . . my metaphysics; that . . my physics." I wanted to learnnot just for the grade, nor even for knowledge, itself-not just to impressstrangers at a cocktail party or friends over coffee by being able to tossout names of ancient philosophers, or current celebrities, and theirtheories. I wanted, instead, to savor what was in the world-to take frombooks and people their views, to sample them, digest them, to make some myown, to reject others, and to store some away for further consideration. Iwanted to become something more-someone better-for what I had studied, orfor whom I had met. Looking back on these past years as a philosophy major, I am only a littleembarrassed at not being able to recall the name of an certain author, orthe term for a specific idea. By the time I graduate, I may actually haveforgotten the majority of those "facts" learned throughout my collegecareer. This, however, does not concern me too much. To succeed externally,to mechanically be able to repeat information, is one thing, but to be ableto say that you have created something internally, that you have madesomething more of yourself, means so much more. As Matthew Arnoldwrote, "Life is not a having and a getting, but a being and becoming." Tobe able to color my thoughts with others' ideas, and yet, blend them into apattern that is mine alone: that, to me, is the ultimate end of education.

 

四、时间顺序法

 

为自己的文章构建提纲的另一个方法是按事件发生的时间顺序组织要点。例如，你可以以你的生活为主线，根据你成长的各个不同阶段，从自己的童年开始，到中学，然后再到大学，等等。此法的优点是它纯粹是个人的，它有助于录取委员会了解有关你的情况以及你是如何成熟的。缺点是用此法可能难于突出中心，而且文章不容易写得长。你想要说明的要点可能在你叙述过程中陋掉。

 

例4的申请人在其文章中先用规范结构写引言部分，然后再用时间顺序法。

 

第一段（引言） 起始句："My background as an engineer and a Hispanic affords me a uniquepoint of reference from which a constructive engagement in theintellectual, political, and social spheres at [ ] will be enhanced."第二段从出生开始："I was born in Brazil and lived in Mexico City starting atthe age of two." 第三段 跳到大学："I pursued an education in engineering taking my Bachelor ofScience inAeronautics and Astronautics from MIT in 1990…" 第四段 转到研究生院："At Michigan, my outside interests gravitated towardpolitics."

 

第五段接着写第一份工作："After graduating from Michigan I worked as an engineerfor GeneralElectric Aircraft Engines for two and a half years."

 

第六段 接着是目前的工作："I left GE because I was dissatisfied with theopportunity for careergrowth…"

 

第七段 把我们带到今天：“I was immediately given the duties normally associatedwith a first orsecond year associate at a large firm."

 

第八段（结论） 结尾句："I firmly believe my experiences in law, engineering, civicactivity, and politicalactivism will allow me to be a creative and contributing member of the intellectuallife at..."

 

例4： Career Switcher, Engineer

 

注意：为了教学目的，该文发表时未加修改。My background as an engineer and a Hispanic affords me a unique point ofreference from which a constructive engagement in the intellectual,political, and social spheres at [school] will be enhanced. I was born in Brazil and lived in Mexico City starting at the age of two.When I was ten, my family moved to a small rural town in southwesternMichigan. I am half Mexican and half German, born to parents whose families maintainclose ties to Germany and Mexico. The rich mixture of cultures coupled withmy own experiences living outside the US have allowed me to perceive theactions of the United States from a different perspective than that of manyUS citizens. I pursued an education in engineering taking my Bachelor of Science inAeronautics and Astronautics from [school] in 1990 and my Master of Sciencein Aerospace Engineering from [school], where I was a Merit Scholar Fellow,in 1991. I am proud that success at [school] was both academic andathletic. I maintained an above average GPA and participated inintercollegiate varsity water polo and swimming. Honored as captain of bothteams, I also achieved a personal dream by earning All-America honors in mysenior year. At [school], my outside interests gravitated toward politics. My brotherand sister were both heavily involved in the campus debates regardingpolitical correctness, womens' issues, and race and class issues. Myinterest in the political and intellectual arena remains keen. I considermyself a principled and thoughtful advocate of progressive politics and, tothe extent that time allows, I expect to be an active member of groups withsimilar political interests. After graduating from [school] I worked as an engineer for General ElectricAircraft Engines for two and a half years. During this time,I completed arigorous nine month in-house engineering curricu-lum (a joint program withBoston University) earning A's in both semesters. While at GE, I organizeda voter registration drive that allowed 425 employees to register withouthaving to leave work. This experience allowed me to work with seniorexecutives of the Company and the Union while gaining an appreciation forthe obstacles involved in getting both parties to work together, even forneutral goals. I left GE because I was dissatisfied with the opportunity for career growthand a feeling that my efforts and those of my peers were neither recognizednor rewarded appropriately. My interest in social issues prompted me toexplore a career in law. Rather than apply directly to law school I obtained a job as a paralegalwith a small corporate litigation firm in Manhattan. I wanted to experiencelaw from the inside and the firm needed a turbine expert to act as atechnical consultant during discovery, depositions, and arbitration.I was immediately given the duties normally associated with a first orsecond year associate at a large firm. I was responsible for conductingdiscovery, writing chronologies from the documents, writing lines ofquestioning for, and second-chairing at depositions. Additionally, myengineering background allowed me to facilitate communication between ourclient (an engineering company) and the firm. My experiences at the firmhave convinced me that I have the ability to work successfully a lawyer.I firmly believe my experiences in law, engineering, civic activity, andpolitical activism will allow me to be a creative and contributing memberof the intellectual life at [school]. Thank you for your consideration.五、叙述法

 

文章里写进一段生活经历或故事是吸引和保持读者兴趣的一个普通而又有效的方法。如果你想使自己的文章集中围绕生活中的某一个事件，这也是一个好的途径。

 

把叙述法用于个人的声明文章的写作最通常的方法是以讲故事开始你的文章，然后进入故事讲述者的角色提出要点和得出结论。叙事内容可以跨越一生也可以是一段。不必完全象好莱坞演技风格那样才能抓住兴趣。只要叙述得好，即使最简短最简单的事件也可能有意义。使得所写的文章都有效的方法就是运用细节，描写，而且要有高潮。